Marriagealso called matrimony or wedlockis a culturally recognised union between people, called spousesthat establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws.
Over time, it has expanded and also constricted in terms of who and what is encompassed. Typically, it is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexualare acknowledged or sanctioned.
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In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity. When defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal.
A marriage ceremony is called a wedding.
Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinalemotional, financial, spiritualand religious purposes.
Whom they marry may be influenced by gendersocially determined rules of incestprescriptive marriage rulesparental choice and individual desire.
In some areas of the world, arranged marriagechild marriagepolygamyand sometimes forced marriagemay be practiced as a cultural tradition.
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Conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns regarding the infringement of women’s rights, or the infringement of children’s rights both female and maleand because of international law.
These trends coincide with the broader human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a statean organizationa religious authority, a tribal groupa local communityor peers.
It is often viewed as a contract.
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When a marriage is performed and carried out by a government institution in accordance with the marriage laws of the jurisdiction, without religious content, it is a civil marriage.
Civil marriage recognizes and creates the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony in the eyes of the state. When a marriage is performed with religious content under the auspices of a religious institution, it is a religious marriage.
Religious marriage recognizes and creates the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony in the eyes of that religion. Religious marriage is known variously as sacramental marriage in Catholicismnikah in Islamnissuin in Judaismand various other names in other faith traditions, each with their own constraints as to what constitutes, and who can enter into, a valid religious marriage.
Some countries do not recognize locally performed religious marriage on its own, and require a separate civil marriage for official purposes. Conversely, civil marriage does not exist in some countries governed by a religious legal systemsuch as Saudi Arabiawhere marriages contracted abroad might not be recognized if they were contracted contrary to Saudi interpretations of Islamic religious law.
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In countries governed by a mixed secular-religious legal systemsuch as Lebanon and Israellocally performed civil marriage does not exist within the country, which prevents interfaith and various other marriages that contradict religious laws from being entered into in the country; however, civil marriages performed abroad may be recognized by the state even if they conflict with religious laws.
For example, in the case of recognition of marriage in Israelthis includes recognition of not only interfaith civil marriages performed abroad, but also overseas same-sex civil marriages.
The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce or adopt.
In terms of legal recognition, most sovereign states and other jurisdictions limit marriage to opposite-sex couples and a diminishing number of these permit polygynychild marriagesand forced marriages.
In modern times, a growing number of countries, primarily developed democracies, have lifted bans on, and have established legal recognition for, the marriages of interfaithinterracialand same-sex couples.
In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of national laws against the practice. Since the late twentieth century, major social changes in Western countries have led to changes in the demographics of marriage, with the age of first marriage increasing, fewer people marrying, and more couples choosing to cohabit rather than marry.
Historically, in most cultures, married women had very few rights of their own, being considered, along with the family’s children, the property of the husband ; as such, they could not own or inherit property, or represent themselves legally see, for example, coverture.
In Europe, the United States, and other places in the developed worldbeginning in the late 19th century, marriage has undergone gradual legal changes, aimed at improving the rights of the wife.
These changes included giving wives legal identities of their own, abolishing the right of husbands to physically discipline their wives, giving wives property rights, liberalizing divorce laws, providing wives with reproductive rights of their own, and requiring a wife ‘s consent when sexual relations occur.
These changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. In the 21st century, there continue to be controversies regarding the legal status of married women, legal acceptance of or leniency towards violence within marriage especially sexual violencetraditional marriage customs such as dowry and bride priceforced marriage, marriageable ageand criminalization of consensual behaviors such as premarital and extramarital sex.
The word “marriage” derives from Middle English mariagewhich first appears in — CE. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures.
In The History of Human MarriageEdvard Westermarck defined marriage as “a more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring.
The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as “a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners.
In an analysis of marriage among the Nayar, a polyandrous society in India, Gough found that the group lacked a husband role in the conventional sense; that unitary role in the west was divided between a non-resident “social father” of the woman’s children, and her lovers who were the actual procreators.
None of these men had legal rights to the woman’s child. This forced Gough to disregard sexual access as a key element of marriage and to define it in terms of legitimacy of offspring alone: marriage is “a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons, which provides a child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of relationship, is accorded full birth-status rights common to normal members of his society or social stratum.
This amount was a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price , which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the father of the bride. As the concept of human rights started to develop in the 20th century, and with the arrival of second-wave feminism , such views have become less widely held. White gold wedding rings sets for him and her in ghana Retrieved March 28, Lifetime refers to the lifetime of the buyer who originally purchased the item.
Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the legitimacy-based definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy.
He argued that a legitimacy-based definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried.
Edmund Leach criticized Gough’s definition for being too restrictive in terms of recognized legitimate offspring and suggested that marriage be viewed in terms of the different types of rights it serves to establish.
In a article in ManLeach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures. He offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures.
Those rights, according to Leach, included:. In a article in Current AnthropologyDuran Bell describes marriage as “a relationship between one or more men male or female in severalty to one or more women that provides those men with a demand-right of sexual access within a domestic group and identifies women who bear the obligation of yielding to the demands of those specific men.
In referring to “men male or female “, Bell is referring to women within the lineage who may stand in as the “social fathers” of the wife’s children born of other lovers.
See Nuer ” ghost marriage “. Monogamy is a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse during their lifetime or at any one time serial monogamy.
Anthropologist Jack Goody ‘s comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found a strong correlation between intensive plough agriculture, dowry and monogamy.
This pattern was found in a broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland. The majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture, in contrast, show a correlation between ” bride price ” and polygamy.
In the countries which do not permit polygamy, a person who marries in one of those countries a person while still being lawfully married to another commits the crime of bigamy.
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In all cases, the second marriage is considered legally null and void. Besides the second and subsequent marriages being void, the bigamist is also liable to other penalties, which also vary between jurisdictions.
Governments that support monogamy may allow easy divorce.
Those who remarry do so on average three times. Divorce and remarriage can thus result in “serial monogamy”, i. This can be interpreted as a form of plural mating, as are those societies dominated by female-headed families in the CaribbeanMauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners.
Serial monogamy creates a new kind of relative, the “ex-“. The “ex-wife”, for example, remains an active part of her “ex-husband’s” or “ex-wife’s” life, as they may be tied together by transfers of resources alimony, child supportor shared child custody.
Bob Simpson notes that in the British case, serial monogamy creates an “extended family” — a number of households tied together in this way, including mobile children possible exes may include an ex-wife, an ex-brother-in-law, etc.
These “unclear families” do not fit the mould of the monogamous nuclear family. As a series of connected households, they come to resemble the polygynous model of separate households maintained by mothers with children, tied by a male to whom they are married or divorced.
Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners. If a marriage includes multiple husbands or wives, it can be called group marriage.
A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10, to 5, years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas.
Marriages are classified according to the number of legal spouses an individual has. The suffix “-gamy” refers specifically to the number of spouses, as in bi-gamy two spouses, generally illegal in most nationsand poly-gamy more than one spouse.
Societies show variable acceptance of polygamy as a cultural ideal and practice.
According to the Ethnographic Atlasof 1, societies noted, were monogamous; had occasional polygyny; had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.
The actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage.
Tracking the occurrence of polygamy is further complicated in jurisdictions where it has been banned, but continues to be practiced de facto polygamy.
Zeitzen also notes that Western perceptions of African society and marriage patterns are biased by “contradictory concerns of nostalgia for traditional African culture versus critique of polygamy as oppressive to women or detrimental to development.
The vast majority of the world’s countries, including virtually all of the world’s developed nations, do not permit polygamy. There have been calls for the abolition of polygamy in developing countries.
Polygyny usually grants wives equal status, although the husband may have personal preferences.
One type of de facto polygyny is concubinagewhere only one woman gets a wife’s rights and status, while other women remain legal house mistresses.
Although a society may be classified as polygynous, not all marriages in it necessarily are; monogamous marriages may in fact predominate.
It is to this flexibility that Anthropologist Robin Fox attributes its success as a social support system: “This has often meant — given the imbalance in the sex ratios, the higher male infant mortality, the shorter life span of males, the loss of males in wartime, etc.
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To correct this condition, females had to be killed at birth, remain single, become prostitutes, or be siphoned off into celibate religious orders.
Polygynous systems have the advantage that they can promise, as did the Mormons, a home and family for every woman. Nonetheless, polygyny is a gender issue which offers men asymmetrical benefits.
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In some cases, there is a large age discrepancy as much as a generation between a man and his youngest wife, compounding the power differential between the two.
Tensions not only exist between genders, but also within genders; senior and junior men compete for wives, and senior and junior wives in the same household may experience radically different life conditions, and internal hierarchy.
Several studies have suggested that the wive’s relationship with other women, including co-wives and husband’s female kin, are more critical relationships than that with her husband for her productive, reproductive and personal achievement.
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Fox argues that “the major difference between polygyny and monogamy could be stated thus: while plural mating occurs in both systems, under polygyny several unions may be recognized as being legal marriages while under monogamy only one of the unions is so recognized.
Often, however, it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the two. As polygamy in Africa is increasingly subject to legal limitations, a variant form of de facto as opposed to legal or de jure polygyny is being practised in urban centres.
Although it does not involve multiple now illegal formal marriages, the domestic and personal arrangements follow old polygynous patterns.
The de facto form of polygyny is found in other parts of the world as well including some Mormon sects and Muslim families in the United States.
This is not a lesbian relationship, but a means of legitimately expanding a royal lineage by attaching these wives’ children to it.
The relationships are considered polygynous, not polyandrous, because the female husband is in fact assuming masculine gendered political roles.
Religious groups have differing views on the legitimacy of polygyny. It is allowed in Islam and Confucianism. Judaism and Christianity have mentioned practices involving polygyny in the past, however, outright religious acceptance of such practices was not addressed until its rejection in later passages.
They do explicitly prohibit polygyny today. Polyandry is notably more rare than polygyny, though less rare than the figure commonly cited in the Ethnographic Atlas which listed only those polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains.
More recent studies have found 53 societies outside the 28 found in the Himalayans which practice polyandry.
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